This study aimed to investigate the effect of different culture mediums based on the Walne medium on the growth rate, chemical composition, and fatty acid (FA) profile in I. galbana and N. oculata. This experiment was done in a factorial design with two culture media (Walne and modified Walne media) and two microalgae species, including I. galbana and N. oculata. The results showed that the modified culture medium increased total and daily fresh and dried biomass production of I. galbana and N. oculata. Modified culture media increased crude fat (CF) and crude protein (CP) content and total and daily lipid production in both the studied species. However, in both the studied culture mediums, N. oculata had higher growth and production performance compared to I. galbana. Modified growth media also affects the FA profiles of the studied microalgae species. Total saturated and unsaturated FA content was not influenced by the growth medium but modified media increased poly unsaturated FA (PUFA) at the expense of mono unsaturated FA (MUFA). Omega- 3 FA content (linolenic acid, Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) was increased as a result of the medium modification in both species. However, linoleic acid content was affected differently in I. galbana and N. oculata. The linoleic acid concentration was reduced in modified medium grown N. oculata but increased in I. galbana. Palmitic acid and stearic acid contents were also decreased in both of the studied species in the modified medium. This study develops microalgal cultivation using a modified Walne medium for higher CP, CF, EPA, DHA contents, the ratio of omega3: omega6 FA, and biomass production in N. oculata and I. galbana microalgae.Microalgae species can produce oil and protein in non-cultivable lands, reducing the need for defrosting and can have an important role in reducing carbon foot-print of animal production. One of the most valuable products of microalgae is their oil, which ranges from 20 to 50% of the dry weight of microalgae (Brennan and Owende 2010; Leonga et al. 2018). The I. galbana is often grown on farms to produce oils that contain large amounts of PUFA rich in omega-3 long chain FA, such as EPA and DHA (Gouveia et al. 2008). Species of the genus N. oculata are also known to be rich in EPA (Kagan et al. 2014; Borges et al. 2016). Factors such as nutrient quantity and quality, light, pH, turbulence, salinity, and temperature are the most important parameters on which, the growth of microalgae depends (Lavens and Sorgeloos 1996; Converti et al. 2009; Emmanuel and Nelson 2016). Vitamins regulate biochemical reactions in microalgae (Hakalin et al. 2014) and the growth rate of some microalgae species is highly dependent on some the vitamins such as cobalamin, biotin and thiamine (Tandon et al. 2017). However, the effect of vitamins on the growth, diversity, and productivity of microalgae has been poorly studied (Arif et al. 2019). The effects of different Nitrogen and phosphorus concentration as the main limiting nutrients on growth performance and biomass production of I. galbana and N. oculata had been evaluated previously (Andersen 2005; Zarrinmehr et al. 2020). However, there was not any report about effects of modifying the availability of culture medium sources of nitrogen and phosphorus. In the composition of the Walne medium, No3-, Po4-, and Cl- are considered as anions, and Na+, Mn+, Co+, Zn+, and Cu+ are considered as cations. Cations chelating anions and making them less available to microalgae. So, we hypothesize that changing the concentration of cations in the culture media, without increasing the concentration of N and P sources, will change the availability of anionic compounds for microalgae and consequently affects microalgal production and composition. Therefore, the effects of lower levels of cations including ZnCl2, CoCl2. 6H2O, (NH4)6Mn7O24, and CuSo4. 5H2O and higher levels of B1 and B12 vitamin in Walne medium on the growth rate, biomass production performance, chemical composition, and fatty acid profile of I. galbana and N. oculata, were investigated in this study. This study aimed to investigate the effect of different culture mediums based on the Walne medium on the growth rate, chemical composition, and fatty acid (FA) profile in I. galbana and N. oculata. This experiment was done in a factorial design with two culture media (Walne and modified Walne media) and two microalgae species, including I. galbana and N. oculata. The results showed that the modified culture medium increased total and daily fresh and dried biomass production of I. galbana and N. oculata. Modified culture media increased crude fat (CF) and crude protein (CP) content and total and daily lipid production in both the studied species. However, in both the studied culture mediums, N. oculata had higher growth and production performance compared to I. galbana. Modified growth media also affects the FA profiles of the studied microalgae species. Total saturated and unsaturated FA content was not influenced by the growth medium but modified media increased poly unsaturated FA (PUFA) at the expense of mono unsaturated FA (MUFA). Omega- 3 FA content (linolenic acid, Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) was increased as a result of the medium modification in both species. However, linoleic acid content was affected differently in I. galbana and N. oculata. The linoleic acid concentration was reduced in modified medium grown N. oculata but increased in I. galbana. Palmitic acid and stearic acid contents were also decreased in both of the studied species in the modified medium. This study develops microalgal cultivation using a modified Walne medium for higher CP, CF, EPA, DHA contents, the ratio of omega3: omega6 FA, and biomass production in N. oculata and I. galbana microalgae.

To investigate the effects of fertilizer regimes on quantitative and qualitative traits of Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss, a field experiment at three replications with the Split Plate arrangement in a completely randomized block design was conducted in the Research Field of Tarbiat Modares University during the 2017-18 growing season.Water deficit stress (irrigation after discharging 20 (optimal irrigation), 40 (mild water deficit stress), 60 (moderate water deficit stress) and 80% (severe water deficit stress) of water used (available water)) in the main plot and fertilizer regime (urea, nitroxin, vermicompost, azocompost and no fertilizer) in the subplot were studied. The results showed that the highest leaf fresh weight (1797 kg ha-1) and total biomass (2957 kg ha-1) were obtained by application of urea in mild water deficit stress condition and the highest dry matter digestibility percentage was observed in azocompost treatment in moderate water deficit stress condition (57.8%). The highest crude protein was produced in severe water deficit stress condition (19.72%) and moderate water deficit stress (18.4%), respectively.. The highest percentage of water soluble carbohydrate and neutral detergent fiber were obtained from no fertilizer in moderate water deficit stress (22.06%) and application of urea in severe water deficit stress conditions, respectively. Mild water deficit stress application to produce high biomass is recommended for Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss. According to the results, application of urea in mild water deficit stress was selected as the best treatment to produce forage 32% more than control.

In this study, chemical compositions of black seed meals samples were determined. 18 male weaning Zandi lambs with an average body weight of 23.5 ±1.5 kg were used in a completely randomized design in three groups of six in individual pens. Experimental treatments were: 1) control (basal diet with 12% soybean meal and without black seed meal), 2) diet containing 6% soybean meal and 9% black seed meal and 3) diet containing 18% black seed meal and without soybean meal. The concentration of dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, NDF, ADF, ADIN, and crude ash of black seed meal samples were 97.53±0.58, 31.26±0.99, 15.16 ± 0.61, 25.95 ± 1.34, 14.2±0.80, 0.69±0.04 and 5.07 ± 0.24, respectively. Replacement of soybean meal with black seed meal in the diet of experimental lambs had no effect on final body weight, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio, dry matter intake, dressing percentage, tail and total body fat deposition. Albumin and total protein were higher for lambs fed by diet containing 18 % black seed meal compared to other treatments (P <0.05). However, the concentration of blood triglyceride, cholesterol and urea nitrogen were not differed between experimental groups. The digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, crude fat and protein were not affect by feeding of experimental diets. It seems that black seed meal can be used in the diet of fattening lambs up to 18% without adverse effect on performance and nutrients digestibility of growing lambs.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of supplementing close-up diets with rumen undegradable protein on serum metabolites and the incidence of health disorders of Holstein dairy cows, during the hot season. Eighty-eight multiparous Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment groups: low crude protein (14.3% CP; 14CP) and high crude protein (17.1% CP; 17CP) diets. Blood samples were collected weekly from d -30 up to calving and then at 0, 5, 14, and 21 days after calving, for serum metabolites determination.  Cows fed the 17CP diet had higher serum concentrations of albumin, blood urea nitogen, and Mg than 14CP cows during the close-up period. In postpartum, the 17CP cows had higher serum albumin and creatinine and lower free fatty acid, BHB, and glucose concentrations than the 14CP cows. The risk to developing subclinical ketosis (SCK), metritis and endometritis were higher for the 14CP cows than the 17CP cows. Overall, feeding high rumen undegradable protein diet to close-up cows during the hot season increased serum creatinine concentrations and lowered the incidence of SCK and metritis and endometritis postpartum.

Introduction: crude protein is a key element in regulating the diet of ruminants and is considered one of the most expensive nutrients needed by livestock. Feeding management plays an important role in the elimination of nitrogen in the production environment and the emission of greenhouse gases in animal husbandry systems (Avathar et al 2021). When there is excessive discharge of nitrogen in the environment, it causes the ecological balance in surface waters to be disrupted and the groundwater to be polluted (Dijkstra et al 2011). Excretion of these compounds in the environment will increase with fermentation, digestion and inefficient metabolism, and the increase in inefficiency in the rumen is caused by the complex and competitive metabolic pathways in the rumen microbial population. Therefore, increasing efficiency in the use of nutrients, especially nitrogen, to minimize their excretion from the animal's body should be considered. Various methods can be implemented in an animal husbandry unit to improve the use of nitrogen in ruminants. One of these solutions is to reduce the crude protein in the diet, but it has been reported that this method can have a negative effect on animal production (Chibisa and Motswangwa 2013). Another solution is nutrient synchronization or synchronizing the fermentation rate of dietary protein and energy sources, which has led to limited success (Yelchi et al 2020). Another solution is to create oscillating in the concentration of crude protein in the diet and feed it intermittently at intervals of one to three days, and previous reports show that this method has improved nitrogen retention and its utilization in the body compared to eating constant amounts of crude protein daily in sheep and cattle (Rach et al., 2021). This study was conducted in order to investigate the effect of constant and intermittent feeding of dietary crude protein on ruminal parameters and microbial protein synthesis in sheep.Material and Methods: Three diets were adjusted with 12, 14 and 16% crude protein but with the same metabolizable energy and protein. 8 male sheep were used in metabolic cages in a 4x4 Latin square design (four treatments with 2 squares and 8 replications). The first treatment received a diet with a crude protein level of 14% constantly. The second, third and fourth treatments received diets with 12 and 16% crude protein at intervals of 24, 48 and 72 hours, respectively. Nitrogen balance and retention, rumen and blood parameters, volatile fatty acids and microbial protein synthesis were measured.Results and Discussion: The lowest total excreted nitrogen (via urine and feces) was observed in the treatment with 48-hour raw protein consumption interval (P=0.031). The retained nitrogen showed a significant increase in this treatment as compared to the constant crude protein feeding treatment (P=0.045). It has been reported that the increase in nitrogen retention in ruminants that received diets with oscillating crude protein levels is due to increased urea recycling in the rumen (Cole, 1999). It seems that the transfer of urea from the blood to the rumen during the consumption of diets with low crude protein level (times 24, 48 and 72 hours) in oscillating diets increased and it compensates for the shortage of nitrogen in the rumen. In this condition, nitrogen excretion through urine also decreases and the efficiency of nitrogen use increases. The highest rumen liquid ammonia nitrogen was observed in the treatment with 48-hour crude protein consumption interval, but the pH and concentration of volatile fatty acids did not show any significant difference among the experimental treatments. Comparing the treatment of constant crude protein feeding (14%) with the treatments with intermittent consumption of crude protein (12 and 16%) in terms of the concentration of volatile fatty acids in the rumen fluid of the experimental sheep, including acetate, propionate and butyrate, as well as total volatile fatty acids, there is not a significant difference. The same ratio of concentrate to fodder and the similarity of the feed ingredients in the diets can be a reason for the lack of significance between the experimental treatments, which is in line with the results of previous researches (Khattab and Abdulwahid, 2018). A significant difference was observed between the experimental treatments in terms of allantoin, total purine bases excreted, as well as nitrogen and microbial protein production, and the treatment with oscillating consumption of raw protein at a time interval of 48 hours had the highest amount. Albumin and total blood protein measured between the experimental treatments showed no significant difference, but blood urea nitrogen was the highest in the treatment with 48-hour crude protein consumption interval (P = 0.005). Microbial protein synthesis in the rumen is affected by many animal and dietary factors, including nitrogen amounts, nitrogen sources, carbohydrate and nitrogen degradation rates, type and amount of carbohydrates in the diet, dry matter consumption, stability of fermentation in the rumen, and synchronization between nitrogen and energy (Hall 2013). It seems that in diets that cause fluctuation in the entry of protein sources into the rumen, the recycling of nitrogen to the rumen is done more effectively through the blood vessels and the liver, which in addition to reducing the excretion of nitrogen from the body also increases the production of microbial protein, in other words, the efficiency of using feed nitrogen increases, which is evident in the results of this research.Conclusion: The results showed that using the strategy of oscillating dietary crude protein concentration in sheep's diet improves nitrogen retention, rumen fermentation activities and microbial protein synthesis.

Some factors affecting crude protein balance (CPB), as a measure of efficiency, were studied using 2824 records of 501 lactating Holstein cows. The CPB (kg d-1) was calculated as crude protein (CP) intake (kg) minus CP yield (kg). Two different statistical methods including principal components (PCs) and general linear model analyses were used to study the effects of different factors. crude protein balance had a moderate correlation with PCs 1 (-0.206), 2 (0.318) and 3 (-0.281), which accounted for 65.6% of total variations. Age, parity, lactation stage, pregnancy stage, dry matter intake (DMI), milk yield (MY), fat corrected milk yield (FCM), milk fat percentage (F%), milk lactose percentage (L%), milk fat yield (FY), milk protein yield (PY), milk lactose yield (LY), dietary levels of net energy for lactation (NEL), CP, ruminally undegradable protein (RUP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and ether extract (EE) and income over feed cost (IOFC) were correlated to CPB, at least, in one of PCs 1, 2 or 3. In general, linear model analysis CPB was significantly affected by parity and lactation stage and had significant partial linear regression coefficients on DMI (kg d-1), F%, FY (kg d-1), PY (kg d-1), NEL (Mcal kg-1) and dietary levels of CP (%), RUP (%), NDF (%) and EE (%). The quadratic partial regression coefficients of CPB on NEL, CP, RUP and NDF were also significant. The estimates for optimum dietary levels of NEL, CP and RUP for minimizing CPB in the studied population were 1.49 Mcal/kg, 11.29% and 7.58%, respectively. In comparison to NRC’s estimates, it seems that, more NEL, RUP and NDF and less CP are needed to minimize protein balance in lactating dairy cows.

Rumen degradability was determined for six wheat, three corn and three millet cultivars in six ruminally cannulated sheep. The sheep were fed a ration containing 55% alfalfa and 45% ground barley. All grains were incubated for 2, 4, 8, 12, 24 and 48 h in dacron bags (50-llm pore size). The mean soluble and degradable portions, rate of degradation and effective degradability of dry matter ranged from 3.3 to 8.2%, 80.9 to 92.8%, 5.4 to 27.5% and 44;.8 to 74.2% for wheat, corn and millet, respectively. Corresponding values for crude protein of wheat corn and millet ranged from 5.7 to 9.6%, 4$.7 to 83%, 5.3 to 28.9% and 35.1 to 78.4%, respectively. It was concluded that grains varied widely in their ruminal degradability and this information may aid in synchronizing degradation of protein and starch in the rumen to improve lactation performance.

Introduction: Infectious diseases, mainly caused by bacterial agents, are one of the most common causes of death worldwide. A significant number of these agents have been resistant to one or more antibiotics,some of them are multi-drug resistant and others are extensively drug resistant. Various antimicrobial and anticancer compounds have been reported from the venom of various species of scorpions. In this study, the antibacterial effects of crude venom and protein fractions of Hottentotta saulcyi were studied. Materials and Methods: In this study, the electrophoresis and chromatographic patterns of crude venom of the scorpion were obtained. Then, the antibacterial properties of the crude venom and its protein fractions on a Grampositive bacterium, Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis), and a Gram-negative bacterium, Escherichia coli (E. coli), were evaluated using the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay by microdilution method. Results: In the Tricine SDS-PAGE profile of the crude venom, 7 protein bands, with a molecular weight of 4. 1 to 104 kDa were observed. In chromatographic studies, 14 main peaks were isolated and collected, of which 9 fractions contained protein. The crude venom at a concentration of 200 μ, g/ml had a significant inhibitory effect on Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria. The effect of the protein fractions of the crude venom was also different in these two types of bacteria. Conclusion: The results of this study showed for the first time that the crude venom of Hottentotta saulcyi and some of its protein fractions have antibacterial properties.

This experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of urea-molasses treating on wheat straw quality and utilization of different percents of ammoniated wheat straw on Dalagh male lambs.Different levels of ammoniated straw were replaced in rations by 0, 9, 18 and 27 percent. Twenty four Dalagh male lambs were used in a completely randomized design and divided in to 4 treatments. Each treatment consisted of 6 lambs during 84 days. Crud protein and fiber of feed stuff were measured.Blood was collected from jugular vein in first and end of experiment. Due to urea ammunition, the CP content of wheat straw increased from 3.4 to 7.5 percent, and NDF, ADF decreased from 70.02, 47.4 to 61.2, and 41.3 percent, respectively. The results of current study showed that, serum glucose was not affected by treatments significantly (P>0.05). Serum urea at the beginning of the experiment for each treatment was 18.9, 28.8, 23.07 and 26.1 respectively. This results showed a significant increase in each treatment compare to control (P<0.05). The mean values of urea were not affected significantly (P>0.05) at the end of the experiment. It could be concluded that ammoniated wheat straw treated with molasses had not adverse effect on blood biochemical parameters and it could provide more nitrogen for lambs.

Introduction: Safflower meal (SF) is utilized as a protein source in ruminant diet, however the protein of is highly degradable by rumen microorganisms. One of the most important factors in determining the protein value of feed for growing or lactating ruminants is the amounts of dietary proteins escape from rumen degradation. Several processing methods such as chemical and physical treatments have been well applied to protect crude protein from microbial degradation. Chemical processing causes environmental pollution which may adversely affect protein digestibility in the small intestine and in some cases may appear in animal products (NRC 2001; Schwab et al 2007). Ionizing radiation such as gamma ray has so much energy it can knock electrons out of atoms and causes fragmentation, cross-linking, aggregation, and oxidation by oxygen radicals generated in the radiolysis of water in proteins. Advantages of microwave irradiation compared to conventional heating are faster heating rates, shorter processing times and energy efficiency. Studies have shown that GR irradiation of sunflower meal, cottonseed meal, and canola meal were successful in reducing degradation of CP by rumen microorganisms (Ghanbari et al 2015; Taghinejad-Roudbaneh 2016). However, there is lack of information on effects of heating and irradiation with gamma ray and microwave irradiation on SF protein degradability. Therefore, the purpose of present study was to evaluate and compare the effects of gamma irradiation at doses of 20 and 40 kGy and microwave irradiation for 3 and 5 minutes on ruminal DM and CP degradation kinetics as well as digestibility of SF. Material and Methods: This research was carried out in Karaj Animal Science Research Institute. First, safflower seeds of Golmehr cultivar were prepared from the institute approved by the General Department of Oilseed of the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture. The DM of SF was determined and then, sufficient water was added to sample to increase the moisture content SF to 250 g/kg. Then, two samples (500 g each) were subjected to microwave irradiation at a power of 800 W for 3 and 5 min. Another two samples (500 g each) were subjected to gamma irradiation at doses of 20 and 40 kGy. The samples were ground to pass a 2 mm screen for the ruminal in situ study. Degradation kinetics of DM and CP were determined according to in situ procedure (Orskov and McDonald 1979). Six g of untreated or irradiated feed samples were incubated in the rumen of three ruminally fistulated bulls for periods of 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 48 h. Then, bags were removed from rumen and washed with cold water and dried in an oven at 65 C⸰ for 48 hours and weighed. To determine the degradability of the DM and protein, residuals of bags were weighed. In order to determine the digestibility of SF, two-stage digestion was used method (Tilly and Terry 1963). DM and CP degradability parameters were estimated by using equation of P=a+b(1-e-ct). Chemical composition data were statistically analyzed in a completely randomized design and degradability data were statistically analyzed in a completely randomized block design with GLM procedures of SAS software. Differences among the means were determined by LSD test, at a significant level of p<0.05. Results and Discussion: Different treatments had not significant effect on the chemical composition of SF (p>0.05). The DM and organic matter digestibility of SF was reduced by irradiation (p<0.05). The mechanism for reducing digestibility in heat-processed feeds is very complex. During heat treatment, chemical reactions (such as the Millard reaction), protein structure changes, and cross-linking between protein and carbohydrates may occur. These reactions convert feed proteins into resistant digestible compounds and are responsible for reducing the digestibility of DM and organic matter after microwave processing (Van Soest 1994). Microwave irradiation for 3 and 5 minutes increased the rapidly degradable fraction of DM and CP and degradation rate of CP. Microwave irradiation for 3 and 5 minutes decreased the potentially degradable fraction of DM and CP (p<0.05), also irradiation by microwave for 3 and 5 minutes decreased slowly degradable fraction of DM and CP (p<0.05). Gamma irradiation at doses of 20 and 40 KGy reduced the rapidly degradable fraction of DM and CP (p<0.05). Gamma irradiation at doses 20 and 40 KGy reduced the effective degradability of CP and DM at ruminal outflow rate of 2, 5 and 8% (p<0.05). Reduction of CP degradability as a result of irradiation is due to the occurrence of cross-linking of polypeptide chains, denaturation and protein aggregation )Ciesla et al 2000). Under the effect of microwave irradiation for 3 and 5 minutes, the effective degradability of DM and CP increased compared to gamma irradiation (p<0.05). Gamma irradiation increased the potentially degradable fraction of CP (p<0.05). Gamma irradiation increased the slowly degradable fraction of CP (p<0.05). Gamma irradiation at dose of 20 kGy increased undegradable protein at ruminal outflow rate of 2, 5 and 8 %. Also, microwave irradiation for 3 and 5 minutes reduced undegradable protein compared to the control (p<0.05). Microwave irradiation for 3 and 5 minutes increased the rumen degradable protein at ruminal outflow rate of 5 and 8% (p<0.05). The highest amount of rumen degradable protein was related to microwave irradiation for 5 minutes (p<0.05). metabolizable protein (MP) of microwave irradiated-SF at ruminal outflow rate of 5 and 8% was not significantly different compared to control (p>0.05), however microwave radiation for 3 minutes significantly reduced MP of SF compared to control (p<0.05). Microwave irradiation for 3 minutes at ruminal outflow rate of 0.02, 0.05 and 0.08% decreased MP of SF by 6.23, 7.58 and 39.24% compared to untreated samples, respectively. Gamma radiation at doses of 20 and 40 kGy decreased MP at ruminal outflow rate of 2 and 5 %, but at ruminal outflow rate of 8% was not significantly different compared to control. Final Conclusion: The results of this experiment showed that however, gamma irradiation of SF decreased MP of SF, but gamma irradiation compared to other treatments decreased rumen degradable protein and increased rumen undegradable protein. Subsequently, in vivo studies are required to investigate effect of feeding irradiated-SF on performance of ruminants.